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One topic in English history that has caused a great deal of controversy is population growth. The only certain fact is that the population of Great Britain grew at a rapid rate during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; the population of Ireland grew equally rapidly until the onset of the Famine in 1845. A population graph shows that there was a fall in the death rate whilst the birth rate remained almost static.
In 1798, Thomas Robert Malthus published his Principles of Population in which he said that the population of Great Britain was increasing at an uncontrollable rate. He believed that the natural rate of human reproduction, when unchecked would lead to geometric increases in population: that is, population would increase each generation at the ratio of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 5122, and so forth. He also said that food production increased only at an arithmetic rate (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10). This meant that ultimately the food supply would not be able to support the population. Malthus wrote his book to suggest possible remedies for this likely state of affairs.
It was shortly after the publication of Malthus' book that the first Census was taken, in 1801. John Rickman was responsible for the first four Censuses (1801, 1811, 1821 and 1831) but the information he collected was not very detailed. However, a brief Census is better than no Census at all.
It has been estimated that the population increase between 1801-31 was 50% and that between 1831-51 it increased by a further 25%. However, in this latter period the death rate also increased, particularly in towns where living conditions were appalling and were deteriorating even further. Where the population was increasing fastest, deaths were proportionately the most numerous. In the 1840s, Liverpool had a population of about 40,000 living in cellars, with an average of 5 or 6 persons in each cellar.
Year |
England and Wales (millions) |
Scotland (millions) |
Ireland (millions) |
Britain (millions) |
Birth Rate per 1,000 |
Death Rate per 1,000 |
1831 |
13.8 |
2.3 |
7.8 |
23.9 |
36.6 |
23.4 |
1841 |
15.9 |
2.6 |
8.2 |
26.7 |
32.2 |
21.6 |
1851 |
18.0 |
2.9 |
6.6 |
27.5 |
34.3 |
22.0 |
In England and Wales in 1831:
Between 1839-1851 the deaths of children under one year old numbered 150/160 per 1,000 and the birth rate was 32/33 per 1,000. This should be compared with more recent birth rates: in the 1960s they were 17.5 per 1,000 for example.
In 1841, 45% of the population of England and Wales was under 20 years old and less than 7% of the population was over 60 years old.
In 1851: 40% of women between 20 and 40 years old were single. A total of about 2.5 million persons were single.
CAUSES OF POPULATION GROWTH
DEATH RATES FELL because:
Population growth may have been slowed down by a number of factors
Although England was becoming more industrialised, as late as 1851 about half the population still depended on rural occupations for its livelihood. Of this number, a half was directly employed in agriculture. The agricultural population grew more slowly than in industrial areas and the population shift to the towns from the countryside was helped by railways and the increased chance of employment.
The population grew rapidly in Nottinghamshire, Lancashire, Cheshire, Leicestershire and in the new coal and iron districts. It is important to bear in mind that there are no reliable migration statistics prior to the 1851 census: this is unfortunate, because there was much migration before 1851. Population was most dense in London, then Middlesex. There was also a high density population in
By 1851 over a half of the population of Britain lived in 70 towns which had 20,000 or more inhabitants each. Town growth was due to migration and cumulative natural growth of population. By 1834 the most recent industrial depression was ending, wages were rising and there was a labour shortage in industrial areas. The textile industry was expanding and the 1833 Factory Act had reduced child labour. Edwin Chadwick and the Poor Law Commissioners advocated and assisted migration from rural to industrial areas, to soak up the rural poor. The scheme continued until 1835-37: then the 'Hungry 40s' began (it is one of those quirks of historians that the "Hungry '40s" are located between about 1837 and 1842/3).
Emigration figures are about as reliable as the population figures (that is, not very reliable) but it has been estimated that between 1830-1839, about 668,000 people emigrated. This rose to about 1,495,000 between 1840-1849 although the majority of the increase in emigration may be accounted for by the Irish famine when over one million people left the United Kingdom. Many of the Irish emigrants went to America or Canada.
GROWTH OF TOWNS
This was a major feature of industrialisation in Great Britain. The greatest growth in town growth took place in the north of England where most of the heavy industry was to be found.
TOWN |
1801 |
1831 |
1851 |
Liverpool |
82,000 |
202,000 |
376,000 |
Glasgow |
77,000 |
193,000 |
329,000 |
70,000 |
238,000 |
303,000 |
|
Leeds |
53,000 |
123,000 |
172,000 |
Only the growth of London's population could compare with the rapid growth of Glasgow, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Manchester and Bradford. These towns acquired larger populations by both cumulative growth and from internal migration. This latter occurred through short-distance moves from rural areas to the nearest town - very much a 'caterpillar' movement. Manchester drew on north Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cumberland and north Wales. The West Riding drew on north and east Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, Birmingham drew on Staffordshire and Warwickshire and London drew on eastern and south-eastern England (and everywhere else).
There was no rural depopulation. The population growth in the countryside was slower than in towns and there were some areas that did show a decline, for example Devon, the Chilterns, Scottish Highlands and east Wales. These were all upland pasture areas where farm enlargement or consolidation was marked.
EMPLOYMENT IN 1851
The following list is selective (not exhaustive). The occupations are in rank order of numbers employed. For further information on occupations, follow this link.
Male |
Female |
Total |
|
Total population |
10,224,000 |
10,736,000 |
20,960,000 |
Population of 10 years old and upwards |
7,616,000 |
8,155,000 |
15,771,000 |
Agriculture: farmer, grazier, labourer, servant |
1,563,000 |
227,000 |
1,790,000 |
Domestic service (excluding farm service) |
134,000 |
905,000 |
1,039,000 |
Cotton textile workers (every kind) |
255,000 |
272,000 |
527,000 |
Building craftsmen (every kind) |
442,000 |
1,000 |
443,000 |
Labourers (unspecified) |
367,000 |
9,000 |
376,000 |
Milliners, dressmakers, seamsters/seamstresses |
494 |
340,000 |
340,494 |
Woollen workers (every kind) |
171,000 |
113,000 |
284,000 |
Coal miners |
216,000 |
3,000 |
219,000 |
Silk workers |
53,000 |
80,000 |
133,000 |
Blacksmiths |
112,000 |
592 |
112,592 |
Hosiery workers |
35,000 |
30,000 |
65,000 |
Glovers |
4,500 |
25,000 |
29,500 |
Nail makers |
19,000 |
10,000 |
29,000 |
Tanners, curriers, fellmongers |
25,000 |
276 |
25,276 |
These statistics are taken from Cook and Stevenson, The Longman Handbook of Modern British History 1714-1987 (Longman, London and New York, 1983), pp. 153-5.
It is interesting to note that
It is clear, therefore, that even in 1851 Britain was far from being an industrial nation.
The rapid growth of towns exacerbated an already desperate situation and urbanisation created social difficulties
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